The Last Four Great Fathers of the Catholic Church: Isidore

From the early 4th century, the Western Roman Empire wielded increasingly weaker political, military, and financial power over its more remote regions, including the Iberian Peninsula, where Hispania was situated at. The eventual disintegration of the Empire caused various heretics, chiefly Arians, who were previously suppressed and exiled into more distant regions to gain a chance to come back. On the other hand, the invasion of Goths destroyed a great portion of Classical studies accumulated until the end of the High Patristic Age. In the early 7th century, situation began to gradually improve in Iberia, politically, culturally, and ecclesiastically. The contributor most instrumental in this process of rebirth of Europe to her former splendor and majesty was Saint Isidore of Spain (Isidorus Hispalensis / Ισίδωρος Σεβίλλης), Archbishop, Father and Doctor of the Church.

The Spanish Saint was born in Cartagena of Spain, in around 560, to Severianus and Theodora, from a former Carthaginian noble family, with certain family members holding positions up to ruler of province. Heresies, chiefly Arianism, revived themselves since the invasion of the Goths, and had become rampant at the time of adolescent age of Isidore. With the general lack of respect to culture in the society, even among the aristocrats and royals, the Carthaginian heir was destined to become the special figure in history who would bring both the Roman heritage and the Catholic Faith back to Iberia. Thanks to his culturally sophisticated parents and brother Leander, who would later become the Archbishop of Seville and took care of him after the death of their parents, Isidore was entrusted to a Monastery near Seville as a child and received an education of unparalleled quality. With both his talent and his diligence, the child prodigy mastered the seven liberal arts and sciences as well as Latin, Greek, and Hebrew in a short amount of time. Isidore studied for dual purposes, namely saving his country and people from Barbarianism and propagating the Catholic Faith. Not a lot of his life after completing his studies and before succeeding s brother as the Archbishop of Seville, but it is certain that he was very friendly and supportive to Monks, though it is likely that he did not join any religious orders.

During the early and middle 6th century, Hispania was occupied chiefly by Visigoths, Swabians, and Romans, together with a minority of Jews and Byzantines. The presence of multiple distinct racial and ethnic groups brought great religious divisions, with Romans and Swabians following Catholicism, while Visigoths following Arianism. The late 6th century, however, was the beginning of a new era of peace and unification. Liuvigild, or Leovigildo, King of Visigoth, conquered the Kingdom of Suebi, also known as the Kingdom of Swabia or Swabian Kingdom, in 586, and granted equal rights to Visigoths, Romans, and Swabians. His successor, Reccaredus I, or Recaredo I, with the unified Visigothic Kingdom, converted from Arianism and to Catholicism 587, and successfully negotiated with Leander of Seville, Isidore’s elder brother, who was the Archbishop of Seville at that time, for the convocation of the Third Council of Toledo in 589, so that Catholicism could be adopted as the state religion. Isidore participated in the Council, watching his elder brother delivering a triumphant closing sermon titled <<De Triumpho Ecclesiae Ob Conversionem Gothorum>> at the end of the Council.

On March 13, 600, Our Lord granted Leander of Seville eternal peace, and Isidore succeeded his brother as the Archbishop of Seville. Immediately after his ascension, Isidore was determined to use all resources available to encourage the assimilation of different racial and ethnic groups into the Kingdom, to promote humanistic education among not only aristocrats and clergies but also common people in order to counter the influence of the Barbarian Visigothic influence, to safeguard the people of Hispania from any

resurgence of Arianism or other heresies, and to protect Monasteries from vandalism. Eventually, Isidore anathematized those who would dare to cause damage to Monks and their Monasteries in 619. Moreover, the Saint brought Aristotelian thoughts long before the Arabs studied his thoughts and works.

Isidore participated in the First Synod of Toledo in 610, and signed a decree recognizing the status of Toledo as a metropolitan see. In the year of 619, shortly after a series of long military campaigns that incorporated a large portion of Baetica into the Visigothic Kingdom, Isidore convoked the Second Synod of Seville, presiding as the Archbishop of Seville and head of the Ecclesiastical Province of Baetica. The council anathematized Acephali, those who denied the orthodox and received Chalcedonian teachings, and set procedures for resolving Ecclesiastical issues. The Archbishop also presided over the Third Synod of Seville in 624, although the canons and decrees of the Council was not collected in various influential collections of conciliar documents. The most important council which the great scholar participated was, in doubt, the Fourth Council of Toledo in 633. Although the Archbishop of Toledo was always commonly regarded as the Primate of Spain, Isidore, at the time still acting as the Archbishop of Seville, presided over the Council and originated most of the decrees of the Council. All Bishops of Hispania attended the Council, and the Council promulgated a great number of disciplinary acts, such as the study of sacred languages for religious uses, namely Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, the study of liberal arts and sciences, medicine, and law, especially Trivium and Quadrivium, the establishment of new seminaries in cathedral cities, the pledge of the King of his support of the Church, and, most importantly, the acknowledgement of the primacy of Archbishop of Toledo in Hispania and the renewal of condemnations of Arianism.

The Fourth Council of Toledo can be viewed as the epilogue of the life of Isidore, in a sense that through this great Council, the lifelong effort of bringing peace of both the Kingdom and the Church, promoting classical education, and countering Barbarianism by Isidore was eventually recognized by both the King and the Church. The canons and decrees as well as their notes and analyses of the Councils and Synods which Saint Isidore participated in were recorded and offered by the Spanish Benedictine Cardinal Saenz (pages 321-341 and 346-403 of Volume III of <<Collectio Maxima>>, Rome, 1753), the Italian Archbishop Mansi (columns 507-532, 556-572, and 612-650 of Volume X in <<Sacra Concilia>>, Florence, 1764), and the French Jesuit Priests Labbe and Cossart (columns 1359-1382, 1403-1418, and 1445-1480 of Volume VI of <<Sacrosancta Concilia>>, Venice, 1729). It is notable that the canons and decrees of the Third Synod of Seville were collected in none of the three important conciliar collections mentioned above. On April 4, 636, having served for more than 36 years as Archbishop of Seville, Isidore received the eternal felicity from Our Lord, leaving the Catholic Church in Spain to continue thriving on his legacy.

As a scholar, Isidore devoted a great part of his life in literary activities and his works can be classified as either miscellaneous or theological. The most important and cited among his works is <<Etymologiae>>, also known as <<Origines>>, an etymological encyclopedia all known knowledge known to Europeans during the 6th century, sacred and profane, religious and natural, making him the first Christian writer to attempt to compile a summa or encyclopedia of universal knowledge. Motivated by a strong desire to promote humanist and religious education, encouraged by his ascension to the rank of Archbishop of Seville, and inspired by the idea of his great friend Braulio, Bishop of Saragossa, the scholarly Saint began to compile his magnum opus from 600 until 625. When he finished his work, Isidore dedicated his work to Braulio as an appreciation and asked for correction.

The eponymous encyclopedia was divided as twenty books. The first and second books covered Trivium, namely grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, and the third book covered Quadrivium, namely arithmetic,

geometry, music, and astronomy. Together, the first three books built a firm foundation for the classical studies of liberal arts and sciences. The fourth and fifth books dealt with topics of law, medicine, and chronology, three transcendental disciplines widely studied by pre-Christian thinkers. The seventh and eighth books delved into Christian doctrines, followed by the ninth book on non-Christian religions and sects. The last eleven books were entirely dedicated on human arts, sciences, and societies, covering such diverse topics as zoology, agriculture, physics, chemistry, and geography.

This monumental encyclopedia quoted from around 500 works by more than 200 authors, constituted more than one-third of the works, and was very well received by later thinkers. The English and German Benedictines Bede and Hraban were both indebted not only the knowledge but also the method of the Saint, and the work remained popular throughout the Middle Ages. Examples of encyclopedias which borrowed in style and method from <<Etymologiae>> include <<Bibliotheca Mundi>> by Vincentius Burgundus and <<De Proprietatibus Rerum>> by Bartholomaeus Anglicus. Despite the numerous works written in similar structure, method, and style, <<Etymologiae>> remained a highly popular textbook and compendium for classical studies throughout the Middle Ages, so popular that several classical works were not copied anymore and thus became lost.

Two other less important miscellaneous works by Saint Isidore were <<Differentiae>> and <<De Natura Rerum>>. Similar to <<Etymologiae>>, <<Differentiae>> explained the meaning of various words and phrases, but had an additional focus on the synonyms of the terms, and <<De Natura Rerum>> offered a thorough exposition on various disciplines of human knowledge, but was centered on natural sciences, especially astronomy and geography.

The other four miscellaneous works by the noble Father of the Church treated various aspects of history. In <<Chronicon>>, the learned Doctor of the Church synthesized all human histories, both sacred and profane, and presented them in the form of timeline, with each event corresponding to the time or period during which they occurred. Another two works were focused on the lives of individual persons. Based on the two works of same name by Saint Jerome and Gennadius, <<De Viris Illustribus>> was a series of biographies of forty-seven learned Christian authors, while <<De Ortu Et Obitu Patrum>> gave a Biblical account on the lives and deaths of Old Testament figures from Adam to Maccabees, both showing the familiarity of Isidore on both Latin and Greek Fathers. The last work of this category was <<Historia>>, an account of the history of Goths, Vandals, and Swabians.

The chief of his theological works is <<Sententiae>> was divided into three books, treating on topics of both dogmas and morals, and was largely derived from the teachings of Saint Augustine and Pope Saint Gregory I, especially his <<Magna Moralia>>. The first book started with questions on God, then on His Creation and Commandments and the relationship between God and mankind, including the Incarnation of Christ, the Coming of the Holy Ghost, and things pertaining to the salvation of mankind. The second and third books offered an introduction and exposition on various aspects of Christian life, including many detailed instructions for clergies and Monks. Another important theological work is <<Mysticorum Expositiones Sacramentorum>>, which, despite its title, was an ample collection of short questions on selected books of the Old Testament based chiefly on the writings of Saint Jerome, although many important Latin and Greek authors were quoted frequently.

Two very short Biblical work are <<Allegoriae>>, which gave each Biblical figure a more allegorical and mystical interpretation, in stark contrast to the historical account in <<De Ortu Et Obitu Patrum>>, and <<Proenomia>>, which offered a short synopsis of each book in Bible.

Surprisingly, the only polemical work written by the pious Archbishop is <<Contra Iudaeos>>, divided into two books and dedicated to his sister Florentina. In the first book, the Cartagenean scholar proved the Christian truths based on the life of Christ, and in the second book, the same scholar demonstrated that the errors of both Jews and Gentiles were refuted by the Sacred Scripture, urging them to convert to the Catholic Faith.

Two of his works, namely <<De Ecclesiasticis Officiis>> and <<Regula Monachorum>>, the first of which was divided into two books, dealing with the canonical regulation and sacramental duties of clergies, and second of which outlined for regulating the monastic life, intending to reasonably relax the rules for Monks established by Saint Benedict. The rest of the works of the Late Patristic Age teacher from Spain are <<Synonyma>>, <<Epistolae>>, <<De Conflictu Vitiorum Et Virtutum>>, and <<Expositio In Canticum Canticorum>>, all of which are very short.

The first edition of <<Opera Omnia>> of Isidore was published in Paris by Bigne in 1580 in one folio tome, followed by a Madrid edition in 1599 in two folio tomes. Subsequent editions include a 1601 Paris edition and a 1617 Cologne edition. A modern edition was produced in 1778, again in Madrid in two folio tomes, but the most scholarly edition is the edition published from 1797 to 1803 in seven quarto tomes, edited by the Spanish Jesuit scholar Arévalo. Additionally, his complete works were collected in Volumes LXXXI- LXXXIV of <<Patrologia Latina>> by Migne. The collection his decretals were collected in Tome I and Tome II and his <<Etymologiae>> constituted Tome III and Tome IV, together accounting for more than half of his works. The remaining works of the Spanish Archbishop were arranged in the last three tomes, with Tome V containing his works on Scripture, Tome VI containing his works on Theology, and Tome VII containing his works on Philosophy.

All works by Isidore remained popular throughout the Medieval times and survived through numerous manuscripts, especially for his main works, which had hundreds of manuscripts available and were frequently quoted the great Medieval Scholastics, particularly on issues pertaining to natural sciences. The first printed edition of <<Etymologiae>> appeared in 1472, followed by at least 10 editions before 1530, including one in 1493, printed together with <<Sententiae>>, as well as those in 1577, and 1911, a modern edition edited by the English classical scholar Wallace Lindsay. One edition of <<Sententiae>> appeared in 1470, followed by editions in 1538, 1566, and 1593. Other notable editions include one of <<Historia>> in 1655, one of <<Chronicon>> in 1593, and one of <<De Natura Rerum>> in 1857. Numerous translations of his individual or partial works were also produced, such as the 2-volume Spanish edition of <<Etymologiae>> titled <<Etymologias>> published in 1982 and the English edition titled <<Etymologies>> in 2006.

Isidore of Spain was a unique figure. He produced the most comprehensive encyclopedia to his day as a Philosopher, defended the true Ecclesiastical teaching as a Theologian, revived classical studies as an educator, and strengthened disciplines as an Archbishop. His synthesis of the works and teachings of previous Fathers of the Church, primarily those of Saint Augustine and Pope Saint Gregory I, together with those of most important Latin and Greek Fathers, signified the end of the High Patristic Age and the beginning of the Late Patristic Age and provided ample sources for the later Scholastics. More importantly, his literary efforts brought ancient Latin and Greek thoughts and literatures back to Europe, thus foreshadowing the more influential Carolingian Renaissance during the 9th century and laying the foundation for the Scholastic Golden Age known as the High Middle Ages. As a result, the Eighth Council of Toledo convened in 653 acclaimed him the extraordinary doctor, the latest ornament of the Catholic

Church, the most learned man of the latter ages, always to be named with reverence, and approved his Canonization. For this reason, the 7th century in Hispania or Iberia was widely considered the Isidorian Renaissance, and in praise for his contribution to arts, sciences, and the Catholic Church, Pope Innocent XIII declared Isidore a Doctor of the Church in 1722.

The Four Last Great Fathers of the Catholic Church: Prologue

The decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire at the late 5th century signaled the beginning of the end of Classical Antiquity and the long transition of the European societies into the Early Middle Ages, a period of European history plagued with decline of the culture and population. Later, the death of Pope Saint Gregory I marked the beginning of the end of the High Patristic Age, the age that began with Clement of Alexandria and his pupil Origen and produced fourteen Doctors of the Church, from Saint Hilary of Poiters (300-367) to Pope Saint Gregory I himself (540-604), nearly five Doctors in every one hundred years. In comparison, there were only eight Doctors from 1000 to 1300, and five Doctors from 1500 to 1800, equivalent to less than three and less than two Doctors per century, respectively. The starkest contrast, however, is the low number of Doctors of the Church in a period I call Late Patristic Age, from the 7th century to the 9th century, during which there were only three Doctors: Isidore of Spain, Bede of England, and John of Syria.

If we take into account the fact that only confessors are qualified for the office of Doctor of the Church, disqualifying ante-Nicene Fathers such as Saint Ignatius of Antioch and Saint Cyprian of Carthage, who were martyrs of the Faith, and the fact the Church adopted a far more rigorous process of investigation for Beatification and Canonization after the Great Schism, disqualifying the greatest defenders of the Church such as Duns Scotus (Doctor Subtilis Et Marianus), Franciscus Suarezius (Doctor Eximius Ac Pius), Petrus Lombardus (Magister Sententiarum), Thomas Waldensis (Doctor Authenticus), Gabriel Vasquez (Doctor Acutus), and Thomas Stapleton (Bellarminus Angliae), as well as numerous eclectic and original authors, including Henricus Gandavensis (Doctor Solemnis), Aegidius Colonna (Doctor Fundatissimus), Ioannes Gersonus (Doctor Christianissimus), and Dionysius Carthusianus (Doctor Ecstaticus), we should expect that every age before and after the Late Patristic Age would have more Doctors of the Church.

The low number of Doctors of the Church during the Late Patristic Age is not an isolated phenomenon. On the contrary, it reflects a shifting intellectual landscape of Catholic Philosophy and Catholic Theology. During the High Patristic Age, the Church first met with persecutors, and after the legalization and state recognization of Christianity, the Church met unprecedented attacks through Heresy and Schism. Both bloody and unbloody persecutions of the Church necessitated the emergence of various Doctors, and this is proved by the convocation of a series of councils centered on dogmas and morals, including the Ecumenical Councils. After the 6th century, Heretics, Schismatics, Apostates, and Pagans began their conversion and reconciliation with the Church, and European societies began to rebuild after decades of wars. The new era was decidedly more peaceful and humanistic than the previous ones, thus allowing Catholic Philosophers and Catholic Theologians to focus more on the less polemical and non-polemical issues. Such distinct features were faithfully recorded and detailed in the nomenclatures of Trithemius, Bellarmine, Bossuet, Dupin, Wiest, Gillow, Antonio, Migne, and Hurter.

The rebuilding and stablization of European societies were signaled by the Coronation of Charlemagne on the Christmas Day of 800 by Pope Leo III, and the revival of arts and sciences was represented by the Carolingian Renaissance, the first of three Medieval Renaissances. Although the Carolingian Renaissance was centered in Germany and mainly occurred during the 9th century, the entire three hundred years of the High Patristic Age could be characterized Carolingian Renaissance, namely transition from chaos and war to peace and stability in European societies, decline of influence of Heretics, Schismatics, Apostates, and Pagans, flourishment of arts and sciences, production of Christian literatures more focused on the

less polemical and non-polemical aspects of Christian beliefs, revival of pre-Christian Classical literatures and thoughts as a countertrend of Barbarism and cultural decline, establishment of a proto-Scholastic structure, and development of education systems for both clerics and laities, especially for monks and children. Some examples are the emphasis of the several classical liberal arts and sciences, Trivium plus Quadrivium, the increased acceptance of classical Roman and Greek thinkers, especially of Plato and Aristotle, and the emergence of Carolingian styles, which marked a gradual transition from beauty more centered on Divine Majesty, such as the Christ Pantocrator mosaic of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and <<Te Deum>> by Saint Hilary, to beauty more centered on aesthetical harmony, such as the Octagon Dome of the Aachen Cathedral and <<Gloria Laus>> by Saint Theodulf.

The Late Patristic Age was truly a golden age of Christian Humanism and served as the bridge between the High Patristic Age and the Early Scholastic Age, due to the study of pre-Christian classics as well as the attempts to systematize and synthesize the thoughts of earlier holy Fathers. Four late Fathers would be best representing this great golden age:

(1) Isidore of Seville, Spain (Isidorus Hispalensis / Ισίδωρος Σεβίλλης) (560-636);
(2) John of Damascus, Syria (Ioannes Damascenus / Ιωάννης Δαμασκηνός) (676-749);
(3) Bede of Northumbria, England (Bedas Northanthyboriae / Βέδας Νορθουμβρίας) / (672-735); (4) Hraban of Mainz, Germany (Rabanus Magnentius / Ράμπανους Μαγκεντίος) (780-856).

Although there are countless other great minds in that era, such as Alcuin of York, England, Walafrid of Swabia, Germany, and Loup of Ferrieres, France, because of the restraint of space, it is quite reasonable to pick the four mentioned above to represent the Catholic intellectuals of the Late Patristic Age.

Gulielmus Estius

Even though the Four Gospels were the center of the controversies between Catholics and Protestants during the tumultuous age of Counter-Reformation, the Pauline and General Epistles were never ignored by Catholic commentators. While the Jesuits took the lead of the Scripture studies in the Catholic Church, there were a few non-Jesuits whose immense learning and erudition made them receive acclaims from all Catholics, including the Popes and Jesuits. In the heresy-stricken Netherlands, one theologian stood out as a commentator on all Twenty-One Epistles. This saintly commentator was Guilielmus Estius (Willem Est in Dutch).

The pious Scripture scholar was born in Gorinchem in 1542, then still a part of the Holy Roman Empire. After receiving and completing early education, he went to Utrecht, then Louvain, the center of Catholic Counter-Reformation and philosophical and theological studies at that time in the Low Countries, where he spent years dedicated to the study of Philosophy, Theology, and Patrology (Scripture and Tradition), eventually obtaining a Doctor of Theology degree on 22 November 1580.

He inherited the deep piety from his family, which suffered greatly for the triumph of the Church of God. During the Calvinists insurgency in Netherlands, the town in which he was born was captured by the enemies of Christ and His Holy Church, and his father, brother, and uncle, Nicolas Pieck, a Franciscan friar who was a missionary to the lands infected by heresies, were imprisoned. Although his father and brother escaped, his brave missionary-uncle was martyred along with 18 Catholic clerics in 1572. They were collectively called the Martyrs of Gorcum (Martelaren van Gorcum in Dutch). These men of heroic virtues were collectively beatified by Pope Clement X in 1675 and canonized by Pope Pius IX in 1867.
Soon in 1582, after obtaining his degree, he was sent to the University of Douai, where he spent 31 years as a Professor of Scholastic Theology and Sacred Scripture. He was the rector of the seminary of the Diocese of Douai, and spent the last 18 years of his life as the chancellor of the great University of Douai. He met the Judgement of Our Lord on 20 September 1613. His characters were summarized as “piety, erudition, modesty, and kindness”.

During his years in Douai, he, together with the Jesuit Fathers, abolished the abuse of denying Last Communion to the prisoners facing execution. He attributes this success to the Catholic Church listening to his report and favoring his request, documented in a posthumously published work, saying that all Estius wanted was to submit to the Church and the Roman Pontiff, and wished no persons or families to be depraved and desired them to enjoy all Christian kindness.

On occasions, however, he showed sympathy to Michael Baius, the theologian whose views on Divine Grace and Free Will were condemned. He was influenced by Baius to a certain degree, though far from falling into any form of heresy, but more in the range of the later Dominican theologians during their controversy against Ludovicus Molinus and

other Jesuits. However, he was in favor of a condemnation drawn by the theologians in Louvain and Douai and for this reason as well as the early influence of Baius on him, his commentaries on the Sacred Scripture was advised to be read with caution in order to avoid any kind of misinterpretation.

His In Omnes Divi Pauli et Septem Catholicas Epistolas Commentarii is the classic which earned him an enduring place in pantheon of all Catholic biblical commentators, especially those who commented on the Epistles. This great commentary was published in 1614 -1615 in Douai in 2 folio tomes. Several subsequent editions quickly came out, as a result of the popularity among Catholic biblical commentators. Examples include a Cologne edition in 1631,some Paris editions in 1623, 1630, 1653, 1659, and 1666, other years, and many Louvain editions. However, Hugo von Hurter believes the best editions are two Cologne editions in 1631 and 1679 and two Mainz Editions in 1845 and 1858, the last of which was bounded in 3 tomes. This work brings Scripture passages together to determine the correct sense, in some cases by comparing the writings of the Apostles themselves, and in some other cases by comparing the interpretations and expositions by the holy Fathers of the Church in Latin and Greek, as well as the definitions from the Ecumenical Councils. This commentary and the commentary by Cornelius Lapidus, the great Jesuit commentator, had been offered compendium as the standards for Pauline expositions. Two examples of such works are Epitome Commentariorum Guilielmi Estii et Cornelii a Lapide and Medulla Paulina.

Estius was lauded by several contemporaries and later commentators for his work. For example, Antonius Calmetus, the influential and orthodox Benedictine Biblical commentator from France, had said that among absolutely all the commentaries (on the Pauline and General Epistles) that had appeared at his time, he would recommend the commentary by Estius. Such a high appraisal is no way to be ignored or downgraded as vain flattery, considering the immense authority of Calmetus as a Scripture scholar. Carolus Iosephus Rudolphus Cornelius, the noted Jesuit Biblical commentator on the Pauline Epistles from Germany, said that the commentary by Estius was the best to recommend, since he more carefully investigated the correct sense of all Epistles, so that he could more diligently attend to the connection of the ideas conveyed by the Holy Pages. Cornelius was most certainly not the only Jesuit who talked about Estius with awe, and in fact, the whole Society of Jesus held high regard on Estius and his Epistle commentaries, despite the theological controversies during which Estius stood against the Jesuits. The admiration from the Jesuits, the group which had offered the highest amount of Scripture scholars within the Catholic Church, is the most solid and irrefutable testimony of the authority of the saintly Dutch theologian.

Another work on Sacred Scripture by Estius on Sacred Scripture was Annotationes in Praecipua ac Difficiliora Loca Sacrae Scripturae, a work of a series of annotations on the specific locations of Sacred Scripture which are harder and more obscure for the seminarians to understand. While admittedly less diffuse and influential than the chief work of Estius, this work was written with the same level of clarity and diligence by the author. There was one edition published in Venice in 1759, divided in 3 tomes, in which all the works on Sacred Scripture by Estius were collected.

However, Estius was not only a Biblical scholar. As a Professor of Scholastic Theology, he distinguished himself as a commentator of Libri Quattuor Sententiarum, the classic work by Peter Lombard which was gradually by Summa Theologiae, with an In Quatuor Libros Sententiarum Commentarii, making him one of the last commentators on this medieval classic, following the doctrines of Saint Thomas Aquinas. While this work was not his chief work, it deeply impressed the erudite Pope Benedict XIV, the Pope who was noted as a Canonist and a scholar who had wide reading on the medieval and renaissance philosophical and theological works. For this reason, he was bestowed the Scholastic accolade Doctor Fundatissimus.

Another two small works by him were Historiam Martyrum Gorcumensium, a work on the life and martyrdom of the Martyrs of Gorcum and considered the best history book about this event, and Orationes Theologicae, divided into 19 books, documenting his several lectures on Scholastic theology.

Ioannes Capreolus

The philosophy and theology of Saint Thomas Aquinas did not enjoy the privilege as we see during and after the Holy General and Ecumenical Council of Trent. On the contrary, the Common and Angelic Doctor and his system had been in controversies with adversaries since the life of the Saint. After the death of the Saint, the work of defense of Thomism was undertaken by a great number of theologians, and it was under their unceasing and relentless labor, the Thomist system finally became recognized by the whole Church.

Among these theologians, however, there was one who was so shining and faithful as a follower, defender, and commentator of Saint Thomas Aquinas that he was honored as Thomistarum Principis, or Prince of the Thomists in English. This man was Ioannes Capreolus (Jean Capréolus in French).

The great Thomist was born in Rodez of France, in the modern-day Toulouse in around 1308. In 1409, he was already chosen to be a lecturer on Libri Quattuor Sententiarum of Peter Lombard in the University of Paris, the center of philosophical and theological studies at that time, also known as Sorbonne. In the two following years, he devoted his time to obtain his Master’s degree, and then used four years to further advance into a Doctor’s degree. He spent most of the rest of his life lecturing in the same university, until his death in 1444.

Contrary to several theologians like many Fathers and Doctors of the Church and the great editors and compilers like Franciscus Antoninus Zacarias (Francesco Antonio Zaccaria) and Iacobus Paulus Mignus (Jacques Paul Migne), Capreolus was the kind of author did not write a great amount of works. Instead, he spent his whole life for a single grand project, and such project became a classic and made Capreolus forever remembered as a luminous Thomist.

This project is In Libros Sententiarum Amplissimae Quaestiones. This work based its structure and order of questions on the aforementioned classic by Peter Lombard, but aimed to defend the system of Thomistic theology. The first edition was divided into four tomes, as the aforementioned classic is divided into four books. The first tome came out in 1409, and it immediately met universal acclaim from the Thomists at that time, mostly Dominicans and Carmelites. The second, third, and fourth tomes came out respectively in 1426, 1428, and 1433.

The four-tome masterpiece placed unprecedented emphasis and authority on Summa Theologiae, but draws its arguments from all other writings by Saint Thomas Aquinas, especially Scriptum Super Sententiarum and Quaestiones Disputatae. It dealt with all major opponents of Thomas Aquinas at that time, in and outside the Catholic Church. The list of the opponents includes Adamus Goddamus, Aegidus Romanus, Aureolus, Averroes, Gualterus Angelus, Godefridus Cornubiensis, Guidus de Pisa, Henricus de Gandavo, Ioannes de Ripa, Gulielmus Occamus, Ioannes Duns Scotus, Gulielmus de Ware, and Petrus Paludanus, as well as their followers. What is truly incredible is that

the author not only had a high level of familiarity of the thoughts and works of all these opponents of Saint Thomas but also presented them in a fair and unbiased way when offering refutation, while expositing the works of Saint Thomas faithfully with absolutely no deviation.

After centuries of development of Dogmatic Theology, the questions and disputations in this work may seem nothing new, yet it excels as offer an in-depth reasoning which are only summarized or explained relatively briefly in standard Dogmatic Theology books and can only be seen in the works of the most brilliant theologians and an unparalleled interpretation of Saint Thomas Aquinas, which most theologians either unknowingly or knowingly deviate. The seemingly ordinary work enjoys a milestone status in the Thomist system because it was the first to synthesize and systematically represent the works of Saint Thomas, thus marking the opening of a systematized Thomist school and ending the period of defense and promotion of Saint Thomas Aquinas based on certain isolated questions. Following his methods and expositions, the new generation of Thomists, led by Thomas Cajetanus and Conradus Koelinus, began to write commentaries on Summa Theologiae and advocate the magnus opus of the Saint Thomas to replace Libri Quattuor Sententiarum, an effort which saw success during the Council of Trent. Today, all Thomists in the strict Dominican sense, both classical and humanist, attribute their achievement and understanding of Saint Thomas to the guidance of this great medieval Thomist.

This great work has undergone several editions, and Paulus Soncinas, Isidorus de Isolanis, and Silvesterus Prierias had offered different compendiums independently. The most widely used and commonly referred edition is the 1900 edition critically revised by Thomas Pègues, a French Dominican who wrote a 22-volume detailed commentary on Summa Theologiae titled Commentaire Français Littéral de la Somme théologique in French and a Catechism of the Summa Theologica, and Ceslai Paban, his assistant. The title of this edition is Defensiones Theologiae Divi Thomae Aquinatis.